The Wolf at the Door: European Farmers and Wildlife Predation on their Livestock

By Emma Culjat-Vukman

What kind of impact are wild carnivores having on livestock?

A study for the European Parliament’s Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development studied four years of data from 2012-2016 [1]. Their data indicated that an average of 21,000 sheep were killed in the E.U. annually, with 92% of the deaths assumed to have been caused by wolves. Livestock losses were estimated by the number of reimbursement claims that farmers submitted for killed animals. No data was provided for the number of cows lost. The same study referenced estimates indicating that there are approximately 17,000 wolves, 16,000 bears, 9,000 lynx, and 1,250 wolverines living in continental Europe.

Carnivore Conservation

Large carnivores such as wolves, bears, wolverines, and lynx are all protected species within the E.U. and are listed as such in the Annexes of the European Union Habitats Directive [2]. Their status ranges from Least Concern to Endangered, depending on the region [3]. As a consequence of their protection status,they can only be hunted when permission has been granted by local governments, who in turn work with the European Commission and the Bern Convention Standing Committee to decide on how large a cull is allowed. This is decided by wildlife biologists that consider a number of factors like local carnivore density, and overall population numbers.

Due to their status farmers have no right to hunt, trap, or set up poison for carnivores living near their livestock.

The Eurasian wolf (Canis lupus lupus) which is found across continental Europe

How is the carnivore-livestock conflict being managed?

Zones

A popular method of management is creating and maintaining wildlife zones. This is done by studying geographic areas and creating separate zones designated for livestock and wildlife. These zones are managed by using fencing, culling carnivores that settle too close to the livestock zones, keeping tabs on carnivore density, and managing the movement of carnivores (for example, stopping them from colonizing islands). This method is fairly successful but often puts farmers located inside or near the wildlife management zones at an economic disadvantage [4].

Culling Carnivores

Most research shows that hunting carnivores is an inefficient and ineffective way to control them unless you kill almost all individuals [5], which is very difficult to do and goes against conservation legislation. Non-lethal methods in which carnivores are trapped and relocated is generally even more inefficient as it is demanding and costly. Even when animals are moved successfully, they often return to where they were captured [6].

Although hunting doesn’t seem to help livestock, an interesting study found that the occasional hunting of particularly effective carnivores in an area had psychological benefits for livestock producers as they felt empowered and like they were making a difference in protecting their livestock [7].

Increasing Wild Prey Numbers

When the wild prey populations are high enough, carnivores get most of their diet from hunting them which decreases predation on livestock. Even though livestock are easier to catch, an increase in wild prey results in decreased livestock predation [8,9,10].

However, there are issues with increasing wild prey near farming areas. If local boar and deer are brought into an area or are encouraged to proliferate (by banning their hunting for example) there can be a quick and substantial increase in their numbers. This can be an issue for local agricultural farms as they end up with potentially severe crop losses, especially from wild boars [11,12] - this results in profit margins being ‘eaten up’.

Boar-proof fencing is often electric and requires 30 cm of buried mesh to stop boars from digging, barbed wire at the fence’s foot and top, tension wires, and must be at least 1.5m high [13]. As you can imagine, this is all very expensive [14] and I was unable to find any evidence indicating that agricultural farmers have access to the same reimbursement schemes as livestock farmers. Depending on the area or country, many farmers are not allowed to trap or hunt boars or deer due to local conservation efforts and subsequently end up in a tough position.

My brother farms crops in Croatia and in the past few years has seen a substantial increase in wild boar from conservation efforts. He has had a hard time supporting these efforts as he receives very little in subsidies and loses more and more corn every year. Cases like this one are why advocating for continued support to all areas of farming is important!

The wild boar (Sus scrofa), found across much of Europe

Better Husbandry

Encouraging farmers to change and improve husbandry can have a large effect on predation rates. These include: choosing individuals to breed who have stronger anti-predator behaviour (like being quick to herd) [15], switching to hardier breeds that predators find more difficult to hunt (larger breeds for example) [16], keeping lambing/calving animals in sheds until parturition and keeping young and higher risk livestock close to the sheds/farmer’s home until they can more easily defend themselves [17]. It is important to mention that choices to improve husbandry are dependent on the farm's system, the local geography, and other factors. For example a producer that cannot bring their animals in at night should opt for hardier breeds whereas a producer who can might choose more easy going breeds to facilitate moving them in and out of barns every day.

Reduced Access

Preventing carnivore access to livestock is the most effective method [18]. Measures like installing carnivore proof (usually electric) fencing, bringing livestock in at night, using well trained guarding dogs, and minimizing grazing animals in forests and denser areas where they are more likely to come across carnivores are all effective protective measures.

As of 2018 the European Commission decided to fully reimburse livestock farmers for damages caused by protected wild carnivores [19]. This includes reimbursements for animals lost to carnivores as well as damaged fences, injured guard dogs, etc. The hope is that this will relieve some economic pressure on farmers so they can invest in management measures that do not involve wild carnivore culls.

Adequate fencing is expensive to build and maintain for many farmers

Possible ways forward

Easily accessible education on the benefits of carnivore prevention is just as important as continued funding to help build fences, train guard dogs, and improve husbandry. A study from Slovakia [20] also highlighted the need for a targeted approach. They found that identifying more vulnerable farms and areas would reduce overall damage and could help change negative opinions held about carnivores, in particular wolves. High variability was even found in smaller regions, which could often be explained by less than ideal husbandry practices.

Remember that the situation will never be perfect as livestock farming will always have conflict with carnivore management and conservation. Clear communication, open minds for dialogue on both sides, and financial support through grants and reimbursements are all necessary to move forward. It is also necessary to manage public opinion about both sides of the issue - it is important that neither party be viewed as the ‘big bad wolf’.

Our role as veterinarians can help play an integral part on both sides of this issue. We can advise and support improved husbandry, help identify more vulnerable farms, support programs that aim to increase wild prey numbers, and help change negative public opinions of both wild carnivores as well as farmers.

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As vets we will have a unique opportunity to help on both sides of this issue

References

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[2] The Habitats Directive - Environment - European Commission [Internet]. Europa.eu. 2019. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm

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[4] Strand G-H, Hansen I, de Boon A, Sandström C. Carnivore Management Zones and their Impact on Sheep Farming in Norway. Environmental Management. 2019 Oct 17;64(5):537–52. [cited 2020 Feb 23] Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-019-01212-4‌

[5] Mabille G, Stien A, Tveraa T, Mysterud A, Brøseth H, Linnell JDC. Sheep farming and large carnivores: What are the factors influencing claimed losses? Ecosphere. 2015 May;6(5):art82. [cited 2020 Feb 23] Available from: https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1890/ES14-00444.1‌

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[12] Bobek B, Furtek J, Markov N, Merta D, Wojciuch-Płoskonka M, Wójcik M, et al. Resolving Conflict Between Farmers and Wild Boar in Europe and Northern Asia [Internet]. Meijaard E, Melletti M, editors. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2017 [cited 2021 Feb 26]. p. 354–65. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/ecology-conservation-and-management-of-wild-pigs-and-peccaries/resolving-conflict-between-farmers-and-wild-boar-in-europe-and-northern-asia/A2FD52935A56D833E65C1DCCA71E4265‌

[13] Wild Boar Fencing [Internet] England and Wales Best Practice Guides.The Deer Initiative. 2009 Jul 27 [cited 2021 Feb 26]; Available from: https://www.wild-boar.org.uk/pdf/WildBoar_fencing.pdf

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[16] May R, van Dijk J, Forland JM, Andersen R, Landa A. Behavioural patterns in ewe–lamb pairs and vulnerability to predation by wolverines. Applied Animal Behaviour Science [Internet]. 2008 Jul 1 [cited 2021 Feb 26];112(1):58–67. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168159107002572

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[18] Linnell, J. D. C. & Cretois, B. 2018, Research for AGRI Committee–The revival of wolves and other largepredators and its impact on farmers and their livelihood in rural regions of Europe, EuropeanParliament, Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Brussels. [cited 2020 Feb 23] Available from: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/cmsdata/191585/IPOL_STU(2018)617488_EN%20AGRI-original.pdf

[19] Humane Society International applauds European Commission decision to fully reimburse farmers for preventative measures against large carnivore attacks [Internet]. Humane Society International. 2018 [cited 2021 Feb 26]. Available from: https://www.hsi.org/news-media/ec-compensation-predator-attacks-110918/

[20] Rigg R, Finďo S, Wechselberger M, Gorman ML, Sillero-Zubiri C, Macdonald DW. Mitigating carnivore–livestock conflict in Europe: lessons from Slovakia. Oryx. 2011 Apr;45(02):272–80. [cited 2021 Feb 26]. Available from: https://www.medvede.sk/pdf/Rigg%20et%20al%20Oryx%202011.pdf

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